Research publications

Contents

• 1 Background
  • 1.1 Legislative History
  • 1.2 “Lost Canadians”
• 2 Description and Analysis
  • 2.1 Definition of Substantial Connection (Clause 0.1)
  • 2.2 The Right to Citizenship (Clause 1)
    • 2.2.1 Correction of Unintended Consequences for First‑generation Limit (Clause 1)
    • 2.2.2 Operationalizing Restoration of Citizenship for Lost Canadians (Clause 1)
    • 2.2.3 Correction of Retroactivity and Liability Issues for Application of Substantial Connection Test (Clause 1)
  • 2.3 Citizenship after Death of Canadian Parent (Clause 1.1)
  • 2.4 Right to Citizenship for Adopted Children (Clause 1.1)
  • 2.5 Opt‑out Process (Clause 1.1)
  • 2.6 Regulations for Opt‑out Process (Clause 2)
  • 2.7 Coming into Force (Clause 3)
• Notes

1 Background

1.1 Legislative History

Bill S‑245, An Act to amend the Citizenship Act (granting citizenship to certain Canadians),1 was introduced in the Senate on 12 May 2022 by the Honourable Yonah Martin. The bill was passed by the Senate without amendment on 17 May 2022.

The version of Bill S‑245 as passed by the Senate granted citizenship to a category of Lost Canadians, that is, persons born abroad to a Canadian parent between 15 February 1977 and 16 April 1981. These individuals would have been Canadian citizens by descent but may have been unaware of the requirement to apply to retain their citizenship before they reached 28 years of age. Amendments to the Citizenship Act2 that came into force on 17 April 2009 eliminated the retention rules under former section 8 of the Act and automatically granted citizenship to anyone born abroad to a Canadian parent and who had not yet reached the age of 28.3

A bill identical to the version of Bill S‑245 as passed by the Senate, which would have granted citizenship to individuals left without Canadian citizenship due to the retention rule, was introduced by Senator Martin in the second session of the 43^rd Parliament. Bill S‑230, An Act to amend the Citizenship Act (granting citizenship to certain Canadians), was introduced in March 2021.4 Bill S‑230 was adopted by the Senate after review by the Standing Senate Committee on Social Affairs, Science and Technology. The bill died on the Order Paper when Parliament was dissolved in August 2021.

Bill S‑245 was introduced in the House of Commons on 15 June 2022 by Jasraj Singh Hallan, M.P., and given first reading the same day. After its second reading on 16 November 2022, the bill was referred to the House of Commons Standing Committee on Citizenship and Immigration (CIMM). CIMM studied the bill from 20 March 2023 to 5 June 2023. During its study, CIMM heard that the bill was problematic as it was currently drafted and that several amendments would be needed to address certain issues with the bill.

According to Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC), as originally drafted, the bill had three predominant shortcomings. Firstly, it would not address all remaining Lost Canadians who had not been dealt with in previous amendments to the Citizenship Act since it only restored citizenship to those who never applied to retain it. Individuals who lost their citizenship as a consequence of the former section 8 provisions of the Citizenship Act and applied to retain it but were unsuccessful do not regain their citizenship under the bill’s amendments. Additionally, the bill as first written was unclear as to the impact of the first‑generation limit. It could be interpreted as creating certain distinctions since it gave citizenship or sought to give citizenship to certain individuals born abroad in the second or subsequent generations but not to others. Finally, the bill lacked the necessary provisions to allow the department time to address certain implementation issues.5

On 17 April 2023, CIMM requested a 30‑sitting‑day extension to consider the bill. CIMM also recommended that it be granted the power to expand the bill’s scope to allow the bill to go beyond applications to retain an individual’s citizenship under section 8 of the Citizenship Act as it read before 17 April 2009.6 The House of Commons granted the extension and the expansion of scope. CIMM presented its report with amendments to the House of Commons on 12 June 2023.

In addition to amendments that corrected the issues identified by IRCC and operationalized the changes into the legislative scheme of Bill S‑245, CIMM also introduced amendments providing citizenship to a new class of Canadians: children born abroad after April 2009 to a Canadian parent born abroad in the second generation if they have a substantial connection to Canada.

These amendments were intended to address the first‑generation cut‑off rule created under Bill C‑37, An Act to amend the Citizenship Act in 2009, which arguably “created a new class of Lost Canadians.”7 These children could potentially have been Canadian citizens by descent, but the 2009 amendments to the Citizenship Act created a first‑generation cut‑off rule and removed the right for Canadians born abroad to pass their citizenship to children born abroad. Prior to 2009, the second or subsequent generation of children born abroad were able to retain their Canadian citizenship if they lived one year in Canada and applied prior to the age of 28 or if they demonstrated having a substantial connection to Canada.8

1.2 “Lost Canadians”

The Citizenship Act has evolved over time; recently, it has been the subject of various legislative initiatives to address the issue of Lost Canadians – persons who thought they were Canadian citizens but who either lost their citizenship or were never citizens in the first place. For example, Canada had a rule regarding the gender of the parent who could pass on their citizenship. In another frequent scenario, some babies born across the border in the United States grew up in Canada and lived here their entire lives, yet they were never registered in Canada. The emphasis on obtaining a passport after 11 September 2001 brought to light the existence of many Lost Canadians.

Bill C‑37, which came into force in 2009, was the first bill to restore citizenship to many Lost Canadians.9 It also introduced the first‑generation cut‑off rule for citizenship by descent whereby a person born abroad to a Canadian parent who was also born abroad is not a Canadian citizen. Bill C‑24, known as the Strengthening Canadian Citizenship Act,10 reinforced the first‑generation cut‑off rule for those who had obtained citizenship through Bill C‑37 by adding provisions to Citizenship Act to the effect that children born abroad to those who received citizenship under Bill C‑37 did not have the right to citizenship. The Strengthening Canadian Citizenship Act also provided citizenship to new classes of Lost Canadians, including to those whose parents would have been granted citizenship through these provisions but were deceased. The Strengthening Canadian Citizenship Act came into force on 11 June 2015.

According to IRCC, following the amendments made to the Citizenship Act in 2009, approximately 17,500 individuals applied to become citizens or regain their citizenship; another 600 individuals were identified and became Canadians as a result of further changes made to the law in 2015. The department also explained that 109 individuals had received citizenship under discretionary grants, based on the special and unusual hardship associated with losing their citizenship under the retention requirement that was added to the Citizenship Act in 1977.11

2 Description and Analysis

Bill S‑245, as amended by CIMM, contains various clauses to comprehensively address the goal of retroactively granting citizenship by descent to those who may have lost it due to the requirement to apply for citizenship retention before the age of 28. It also aims to provide relief to the second generation born abroad if they have a substantial connection to Canada.

2.1 Definition of Substantial Connection (Clause 0.1)

New clause 0.1 of the bill, as amended by CIMM, adds section 2(2)(d) to the interpretation provisions of the Citizenship Act to create a “substantial connection” criterion that can only be met through a physical presence in Canada that is equivalent to three years (although the time spent in the country need not be consecutive). This amendment is intended to address the first‑generation cut‑off rule created under Bill C‑37 in 2009, which removed the right for Canadians to pass on their citizenship to children born abroad and which “created a new class of Lost Canadians.”12 New section 2(2)(d) is designed to restore that right by creating a connection test to Canada.

2.2 The Right to Citizenship (Clause 1)

Clause 1 of Bill S‑245 amends the right to citizenship set out in section 3 of the Citizenship Act in various ways. In the version of the bill passed by the Senate, clause 1(1) amended section 3(1)(f)(iii) to provide that individuals who applied to retain their citizenship during the relevant timeframe, but whose applications were not approved, are not citizens. This amendment was deleted in CIMM’s report to the House of Commons; therefore, the text is unchanged in the Citizenship Act and a person who had failed to make an application under former section 8 before its repeal or whose application was not approved is not a Canadian citizen under section 3(1)(f)(iii). This is in direct contradiction with the further amendments in CIMM’s report.

Clause 1(2) of the version of the bill passed by the Senate adds section 3(1)(g.1) to the Citizenship Act, creating a new category of persons who have a right to Canadian citizenship: people born outside Canada to a Canadian parent after 14 February 1977 who would have been a citizen had they made an application to retain their citizenship, as required, before 17 April 2009.

CIMM modified the wording of new section 3(1)(g.1) to enable grants of citizenship to Lost Canadians who may have submitted an application to retain their Canadian citizenship but who had it subsequently rejected by the government. According to IRCC, new section 3(1)(g.1), as amended by CIMM, provides “an equitable and inclusive remedy” for second‑generation Canadians born abroad who may not have successfully passed the connection test established between 1977 and 1981, which required demonstrating a full year of residence in Canada.13

The 2009 amendments to section 3(3) of the Citizenship Act established a rule that only allows citizenship to be passed on to one generation born abroad. Under bills C‑37 and C‑24, which restored citizenship to Lost Canadians, parents born abroad who received citizenship automatically by law could only pass on their Canadian citizenship to the first generation. A CIMM amendment to Bill S‑245 added parents who regain citizenship through new section 3(1)(g.1) to the list of individuals who cannot pass on their citizenship under section 3(3)(a).

Further CIMM amendments to Bill S‑245 modified section 3(3) of the Citizenship Act to make a distinction based on when the child was born abroad, providing a general rule that, independent of when the parent was born, a child born abroad as of 2009 can use the substantial connection test.14 Section 3(3)(a), as amended by CIMM, adds that a child born abroad before 17 April 2009 cannot receive citizenship if their Canadian parent born abroad acquired citizenship through any provision listed, including new section 3(1)(g.1). On the other hand, new section 3(3)(a.01) provides that a child born abroad after 16 April 2009 could have citizenship if their Canadian parent born abroad has a substantial connection to Canada. This distinction in time is repeated with CIMM amendments to section 3(3)(b), where a person born before 17 April 2009 may not receive citizenship because their Canadian parent was born abroad. Further, new section 3(3)(c) reiterates the first‑generation cut‑off rule for a person born after 16 April 2009 with a Canadian parent described in sections 3(3)(b)(i) to 3(3)(b)(viii) who has no substantial connection to Canada: that person will not have access to Canadian citizenship.

In summary, Table 1 compares the existing wording of section 3(3)(a) of the Citizenship Act to the two amendments to that section as set out in CIMM’s report on Bill S‑245.

2.2.1 Correction of Unintended Consequences for First‑Generation Limit (Clause 1)

CIMM deleted the amendment to section 3(4) of the Citizenship Act in the version of the bill passed by the Senate to solve a “drafting error,”15 which would have moved the first‑generation‑limit from 2009 to 2015, thus creating “a significant impact on untold numbers of persons born abroad in the second generation or beyond, who would automatically acquire Canadian citizenship by descent.”16 Unintended consequences would have included granting automatic citizenship to those who had already gone through the process of applying for and obtaining a grant of citizenship notably through naturalization,17 thus removing their capacity to pass on citizenship to their descendants and their future children.18

2.2.2 Operationalizing Restoration of Citizenship for Lost Canadians (Clause 1)

Through its amendments to the bill, CIMM also added new language to clarify how restoring Canadian citizenship effectively operates with respect to this specific category of Lost Canadians and their children.19 IRCC officials stated that the added text will enable the department “to operationalize the provision of the bill [by] clarifying” the intended effects and by “safeguarding against unintended loss [of citizenship].”20 Further, CIMM added section 3(4.2) to the Act, which introduces a new transitional provision that prevents Lost Canadians from passing on their citizenship to their children born abroad except for those who had already been previously naturalized. CIMM’s amendments also dropped section 3(5.2) from the Act. This section prevented Lost Canadians, born or adopted by Canadian parents in service to the Canadian Armed Forces from gaining citizenship because of the retention rule. By adding section 3(6.4) to the Act, CIMM sought to clarify that this group of Lost Canadians who may have obtained citizenship notably through naturalization is deemed to have never been citizens by way of grant. Finally, CIMM’s amendments added section 3(7)(n) to specify that this category of Lost Canadians is deemed to have acquired citizenship retroactively to the date when it was lost.

2.2.3 Correction of Retroactivity and Liability Issues for Application of Substantial Connection Test (Clause 1)

Other amendments to Bill S‑245 by CIMM added sections to the Citizenship Act to address retroactivity and related liability issues21 for “children born abroad in the second or subsequent generation”22 after 16 April 2009 who may obtain citizenship through the substantial connection test. According to IRCC, these “transitional provisions” are consistent with “past legislative remedies that were done in 2009 and 2015,”23 and are necessary “to facilitate the administration and processing of the proof applications that would come in the future,”24 and to ensure “equity in treatment.”25

New section 3(7.1) clarifies that individuals in this group who will receive citizenship through the substantial connection test will be deemed in law as having acquired it from the time of their birth.

New section 3(6.21) provides that individuals with a substantial connection who were previously naturalized as Canadians will be deemed as having never received citizenship this way, and by operation of law, will be considered as citizens from the time they were born.26

IRCC explained that these transitional provisions are needed to be consistent with the current “scheme of the legislation,” which only considers citizens in two categories: a citizen as of right or a citizen by grant.27 The transitional provisions will allow for this group of citizens with a substantial connection to obtain certain provincial benefits and “to pass on citizenship automatically to their child born abroad.”28 Finally, new section 3(8.1) prohibits these new citizens from suing the government for any claim to retroactive rights and clarifies that they are not liable for retroactive obligations such as back taxes.

2.3 Citizenship after Death of Canadian Parent (Clause 1.1)

Section 4(2) of the Citizenship Act relates to a child born after the death of the parent and deems that the child is born before the death of the Canadian parent. Under new clause 1.1 of the bill, CIMM amended this section of the Act to include individuals born after 16 April 2009 who have a substantial connection to Canada as provided for in new sections 3(3)(a.01) and 3(3)(c).

2.4 Right to Citizenship for Adopted Children (Clause 1.1)

Section 5.1(4) of the Citizenship Act provides that the first‑generation cut‑off rule applies to children who are adopted. New clause 1.1 of Bill S‑245, introduced by CIMM, amended section 5.1(4)(a) twice. First, CIMM added section 5.1(4)(a)(i), by which new section 3(1)(g.1) is included in the list of provisions that provide Canadian citizenship to a parent born abroad with a substantial connection to Canada and makes this the determining factor as to why the adopted child cannot have citizenship by descent. The second amendment added section 5.1(4)(a)(ii), which stipulates that in the absence of a substantial connection, the adopted child cannot access Canadian citizenship.

Furthermore, an amendment to section 5.1(4)(b) of the Citizenship Act sets out that adopted children with parents described in section 3(3)(b) with no substantial connection to Canada cannot receive citizenship.

In summary, Table 2 compares the existing wording of section 5(1)(4)(a) of the Citizenship Act to the two amendments to that section as set out in CIMM’s report on Bill S‑245.

2.5 Opt‑Out Process (Clause 1.1)

Under new clause 1.1, CIMM added new section 9.1 to the Citizenship Act to create an opt‑out provision to the automatic conferring of citizenship for individuals who do not wish to be Canadian citizens. New section 9.1(1) provides these individuals with the means to give written notice to the Minister of Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship indicating that they wish to be exempt from the application of the new provisions of the Act under which they would otherwise be considered citizens. New section 9.1(2) allows the minister to provide individuals with written confirmation that they are deemed to never have been a citizen under section 3(1)(b) if they meet the requirements set out in section 9.1(1).

2.6 Regulations for Opt‑Out Process (Clause 2)

Clause 2 of Bill S‑245 gives the Governor in Council the authority to create regulations allowing individuals who obtained their citizenship under new section 3(1)(g.1) of the Citizenship Act to renounce their citizenship.

2.7 Coming into Force (Clause 3)

CIMM added clause 3 to the bill, which deems that Bill S‑245 will come into force on a day to be fixed by order of the Governor in Council, but no later than 548 days after the bill receives Royal Assent.

Notes